Nigeria

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

 “Nigeria” is the modern name given to the region formerly referred to as the Royal Niger Company Territories on January 1, 1914 when the British government assumed direct control of the territories. The territories consisted of the Northern protectorate (made up of the Hausa states and other regions north of the Niger River); the Niger Coast Protectorate, (covered the central and eastern parts which became the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria) and the colony of Lagos.

Nigeria is located in the tropical zone of West Africa and has a total area of 923 770 km2. It is bordered to the west by Benin (previously known as Dahomey), to the northwest and north by Niger, to the northeast by Chad and to the east by Cameroon, while the Atlantic Ocean forms the southern limits of Nigerian territory. Land cover ranges from thick mangrove forests and dense rain forests in the south to a near-desert condition in the northeastern corner of the country. Nigeria is a federal republic constituted by 36 States and a capital territory.

Three broad ecological zones are commonly distinguished in the country: the northern Sudan Savannah, the Guinea Savannah zone or Middle Belt, and the southern rainforest zone. A mountainous zone is found at the border with Cameroon and the plateau zone in the centre of the country.

The most prominent physical feature of Nigeria is the Niger River. It rises in the mountains northeast of Sierra Leone, traverses the whole of the French Sudan, enters Nigeria in the northwest, joins the Benue River at Lokoja, near the center of Nigeria, and then flows due west into the Gulf of Guinea.

The country is a conglomeration of hundreds of ethnic groups with many different indigenous languages, historical memories, traditional lifestyles, and social frameworks with roots reaching into the distant past.

 

Early Origins

The name “Nigeria” was introduced in the 1890s by a British journalist Flora Shaw, inspired by the Niger River, which flows prominently through the country. 

 Nigeria has a rich and diverse history that stretches back to around 2000 BC. In ancient times, the region was inhabited by nomadic tribes who lived off the land by herding cattle and cultivating crops. By 800 BC, the Nok culture emerged one of the earliest known civilizations in West Africa. The Nok people are especially recognized for their remarkable craftsmanship in bronze and terracotta sculptures, which remain some of the oldest examples of African art.

Over time, different regions of Nigeria began to develop distinct identities. Population growth and migration from neighboring areas during the 11th century led to the formation of powerful kingdoms, including the Benin and Oyo empires. These early civilizations were instrumental in shaping Nigerian society, constructing impressive architectural and cultural landmarks that still stand today as symbols of their legacy.

Nigeria’s early inhabitants were not only skilled agriculturists and traders but also highly accomplished artists. Their legacy is preserved in the numerous artifacts, sculptures, and monuments that continue to inspire pride in the nation’s heritage. The Benin and Yoruba kingdoms, among many others, laid the cultural and historical foundations of what is today Africa’s most populous country.

Early States Before 1500

Long before 1500, much of present-day Nigeria was divided into states, which can be identified with the modern ethnic groups that trace their history to the origins of these states. These early states included the Yoruba kingdoms, the Edo kingdom of Benin, the Hausa cities, and Nupe. 

In addition, numerous small states to the west and south of Lake Chad were absorbed or displaced in the course of the expansion of Kanem, which was centered to the northeast of Lake Chad. Borno, initially the western province of Kanem, became independent in the late fourteenth century. Other states probably existed as well, but oral traditions and the absence of archaeological data do not permit an accurate dating of their antiquity.

The Hausa States  

The Hausa States (also Hausa Bakwai or Hausaland) were a loose confederation of city-states (or kingdoms) located between the Niger River and Lake Chad, in modern-day northern Nigeria and Niger. 

The Hausa people are among the largest ethnic groups in Nigeria and historically occupied much of the northern region. Traditionally, they were organized into two clusters of seven states each. The first included Biram, Daura, Katsina, Zaria (Zazzau), Kano, Rano, and Gobir; the second consisted of Kebbi, Zamfara, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri, Ilorin, and Kwararafa.

From the 15th century, the Hausa states experienced ongoing political competition, especially among Katsina, Kano, and Zaria. Although various attempts were made between 1500 and 1800 to unify the states into a lasting empire, none succeeded. However, Queen Amina of Zazzau briefly established regional dominance in the 15th century, extending her rule across vast territories.

Later, Borno asserted influence over the Hausa region, followed by the 19th-century Fulani Jihad led by Uthman dan Fodio. This resulted in the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, which brought most of the Hausa states under Fulani rule. The region became well known for its leather craftsmanship, with products such as shoes exported via trans-Saharan trade routes to destinations as far as Spain.

Central Nigerian Kingdoms and Empires

South of the Hausa and Borno regions lies a diverse area home to numerous ethnic groups. This region, stretching across the Bauchi Plateau and Adamawa was less politically centralized, but still hosted several powerful kingdoms. These included the Jukun (Kwararafa) in the Gongola-Benue valleys, the Igala, the Igbira-Panda, Nupe, Oyo Yoruba, the Borgu peoples, and the Edo.

Despite the fragmented political landscape, these societies developed sophisticated cultural, political, and economic systems that contributed to regional influence and trade.

The Yoruba Kingdoms and Empires

Yoruba civilization dates back to the 11th century, with most Yoruba people tracing their origins to the sacred city of Ife. Politically, the kingdom served as the basic unit of governance, while culturally, various subgroups such as the Oyo, Egba, Ijebu, Ijesa, Ekiti, Ondo, and Owo shared a strong ethnic identity.

The Oyo Empire became the most dominant, leveraging a powerful cavalry and strategic geography to extend its influence over regions like Borgu, Nupe, Dahomey, and Porto Novo. However, internal conflicts and the Fulani Jihad weakened Oyo, leading to its collapse around 1837.

The Benin Kingdom

The Benin Kingdom, located in present-day Edo State, traces its formal history to around the 13th century. Its rulers, known as Obas are believed to descend from an earlier chieftaincy system led by the Uzama chiefs. Over time, Benin developed into a centralized and powerful kingdom with a rich tradition of bronze artistry and governance.
Historical records list approximately 30 monarchs reigning over this period, contributing to a sophisticated political and cultural system that influenced surrounding regions.

Delta and Eastern Nigerian Kingdoms and Communities

In the Niger Delta and southeastern Nigeria, a wide variety of political systems emerged. These included established kingdoms like Aboh and Itsekiri, as well as more fragmented communities among the Urhobo, Isoko, Ukwuani, and Ijo peoples. The Itsekiri kingdom, led by an Olu and his council, had already developed by the 16th century.

The Ijo established several scattered kingdoms, such as Egbema, Gbaramatu, and Nembe. Aboh also held sway over both riverine and inland communities. British colonial intelligence in the 1930s listed several clans recognizing the authority of the Obi of Aboh.

Among the Igbo, decentralized communities were the norm. Despite lacking a central state, the Igbo maintained shared cultural and cosmological systems. The Aro people played a dominant role through religion and trade, establishing a theocratic network across eastern Nigeria.

Early External Contacts

Before British involvement in the affairs of the geographical area that later became Nigeria, the people had interacted through trade, marriage, and cultural exchanges. Thus, there already existed shared values and attitudes that were not broken by colonialism.

Many pre-Nigerian groups were acephalous, and their traditions of origin, migration, and settlement lack any unitary direction. In many instances, such traditions are either contradictory or reflect the opinions of the dominant families. Among the Igbo and Ibibio in southeast Nigeria, for instance, there are no common traditions of origin. Among the Efik, there is a common tradition of migration from Ibom, a village in present-day Arochukwu, Abia State.

Also, among the Bini, Hausa, Igala, Kanuri, and Yoruba, there existed highly centralised political institutions which ensured relative stability in the politics and economies of these groups and which, overtime, also resulted in their expanding beyond their borders and incorporating members of other ethnic groups in the process of state formation. For instance, the Oyo Empire in Yorubaland was to overshadow other independent kingdoms like Owu, and even incorporated non-Yoruba groups such as the Tapa and Bariba or Ibariba. 

The imperial expansion of Oyo also led to the incorporation of Ilorin, Egbaland, and Dahomey, among others, into the empire. It has indeed been observed that before the collapse of its central authority in the early 19th century, the Oyo Empire controlled a sea coast from about Whydah to just east of Badagry, and the territory extended for perhaps more than two hundred miles inland.

On its part, the Igala kingdom, which emerged at about the same time as Benin and Oyo, expanded beyond Igala land to not only attract the attention of Benin but to also threaten its existence in the 15th and 16th centuries. The ancient Benin kingdom, for example, was the dominant power in southern Nigeria, and its military influence extended to Igboland. Also, the claims of many Niger Delta groups of traditions of origin from Benin are pointers to that kingdom’s overwhelming influence in the region.

The country also has a formation of language known as Pidgin, which is a mixture of African languages and English, and is also common throughout southern Nigeria. It basically uses English words mixed into Yoruba or Igbo grammar structures. Pidgin originally evolved from the need for British sailors to find a way to communicate with local merchants. Today, it is often used in ethnically mixed urban areas as a common form of communication among people from diverse background.

Rivers and Commercial Trade among the Ethnic Groups

There are several rivers in Nigeria, but the most important is the River Niger. Many of the States in Nigeria today are named after rivers, and these include Anambra, Imo, Ebonyi, Ogun, Osun, Cross River, Niger, Kaduna, Benue, et cetera.

These two Rivers, thus River Niger and the River Benue were very important in nurturing and sustaining commerce and communication among those who derived their livelihoods from their resources. Traders moved along the rivers in large canoes, bringing with them commodities and merchandise from the hinterland, and taking home products from inhabitants of the banks of these rivers. 

With time, important trading centres emerged to serve not only as meeting places of traders and their goods, but also as melting points of cultures. Kings in whose domains market fairs were held, such as those of Aboh, Asaba, Onitsha, Idah, and Ikiri, cooperated in ensuring that peace prevailed in such places.

British Rule, Slave Trade & Other Trade Activities

The arrival of the colonial masters between 1500 to 1800 began the trade in slavery. The export of slaves commenced with Portugal. During the three centuries following 1500, most of the leading European nations participated in the slave trade, which became lucrative after the discovery of America and the establishment of Spanish colonies in the West Indies, which had created a heavy demand for slaves.

In 1712, the British secured a virtual monopoly over slave dealing on the West Coast. A century later, in 1807, Great Britain declared the slave trade illegal. British abolition produced no revolutionary change, however, because foreign slave dealers, mainly Portuguese, rushed in to fill the vacuum. The trade increased and was not finally ended until the mid-1840s.

European slave dealers had no strong incentive to explore the Nigerian hinterland, and few of them left their vessels. The procurement of the slaves was then left to African middlemen. Chiefs and African slave traders readily undertook the role of middlemen and brought the slaves to the shipside in exchange for European ornaments and artifacts.

Nigeria was known as the “Slave Coast” until the middle of the nineteenth century because of how pervasive the slave trade was in the area. The labour from the slave trade enabled Europe to emerge from medieval stagnation and pass through its agricultural, industrial, and intellectual revolutions.

After the British government had declared the slave trade illegal in 1807, European traders were compelled to turn to legitimate trade in such commodities as palm oil and ivory. The adjustment was made quickly, however, and as early as 1826, twelve British merchant ships were reported to be in the Bonny River at one time.  

During the succeeding seventy years, the trade in Nigerian products grew rapidly and was conducted first by private European traders and companies, and later by the chartered Royal Niger Company, which was given the mandate by Queen Victoria of Britain to act on behalf of the British government in the Niger River regions of present-day Nigeria.

Until the turn of the nineteenth century, the areas embraced in whole or in part by the then geographical expression now named “Nigeria” were referred to by a variety of names. The immediate predecessors have been noted: the Colony of Lagos, The Niger Coast Protectorate, and the “territories in the basin of the Niger and its affluents” administered by the Royal Niger Company. 

In 1860, the British Annexed Lagos as a Crown Colony and thus began a process of territorial expansion which resulted in the birth of the British protectorate, christened Nigeria, at the end of the nineteenth century. Britain was to exercise sovereign power over Nigeria until 1960 when the inhabitants were granted independence. To secure British control in Nigeria, Britain established a consul who was charged with supervising trading activities in Biafra and Benin (secessionist state and capital of Edo State, respectively). More than three decades earlier, in 1861, the British government had annexed the settlement of Lagos as a colony, ostensibly to stop the slave trade.

Other Trade Activities

The Royal Niger Company played a major role in the British colonisation of what is now Nigeria during the late 19th century. Its main functions were both commercial and political, acting almost like a government before formal colonial rule was established. The company controlled trade especially in palm oil, rubber, ivory, and other resources along the Niger and Benue rivers.  It had exclusive trading rights granted by the British government in a large area of what is now Nigeria.

The Royal Niger Company, empowered by the British Crown had made their debut in 1886 or even earlier to the ethnic nations of Nigeria. Their major mission was to trade in all the territories of the Niger Basin. Other reasons that also informed the British expansionist adventure included mere curiosity, the search for markets and raw materials, and the mission to civilise and Christianise the people.

In 1900, the protectorate had a British High Commissioner, Sir Frederick Lugard who also took control of the Niger Basin area. The Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, originally enacted in 1893 as Niger Coast Protectorate was amalgamated with Lagos under the title, “Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria”.

 In 1906, the two southern administrations were united under one administrator, Sir Walter Egerton. Thus, the history of Nigeria as a single geo-political state began in 1914 with the amalgamation of the North and Southern Protectorates by Frederick Lord Lugard.

Towards Independence

Historically, it’s evident that until the 19th century, when the British began to make their administrative inroads into Nigeria, the geographical span of land now known as Nigeria comprised diverse kingdoms, empires, nationalities, and states (both small and large) with well-structured political systems, identities, and symbols that existed independently. Nigeria, like other African nations, existed as tribes and ethnic groups with distinct cultures, norms, languages, and traditions before independence.

The formation of political parties, especially the Action Group (AG) and the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), consequent upon the promulgation of the Macpherson Constitution in 1951, was done along regional and ethnic lines. 

The National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC), which had a nationalist outlook, was later to assume ethnic colouration following Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe’s denial by the Yoruba-dominated Western House of Assembly from representing Lagos in the Federal House of Representatives after he had won the election to do so.

In 1938, the demands of a single Nation, Nigeria, began to be raised. Mainly responsible for popularising these demands, through newspaper articles and speeches, was Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, the then Prime Minister of the Eastern Region of Nigeria. 

The mention of self-government was made in the Youth Charter on a document adopted by the Nigerian Youth Movement of which Dr. AzIkiwe was a leading figure, in 1938, the charter stressed the need to unify the different tribes of Nigeria by adopting and encouraging means which would foster better understanding and co-operation between the tribes so that they may come to have a common ideal.

A period of difficulties, largely from personal ambitions and feuds among some of the leaders, brought about the formation of new political groups. One of these took later on the first steps leading to the formation in 1944 of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (N.C.N.C). The N.C.N.C began as a heterogeneous movement that brought under its wing various tribes, communities, and groupings based on an anti-imperialist programme. 

Within a year of its formation, it had over 180 affiliated organisations. These included political, trade union, co-operative, peasant, tribal, cultural, sporting, women’s, and youth organisations.  

On May 30, 1967, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, declared the secession of the Eastern region and named it the Republic of Biafra — a move the federal government saw as an act of rebellion. A fight broke out and escalated into a full-scale civil war. In August, 1967 Biafran troops crossed the Niger, seized Benin City, and were well on their way to Lagos before they were stopped at Ore, a small town in Western state now known as Ondo State. 

Political History from Independence

Nigeria gained independence from British colonial rule on October 1, 1960, becoming a sovereign nation under a parliamentary system of government. The country was initially led by Prime Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, while Nnamdi Azikiwe served as Governor-General and later as the first ceremonial President. 

Nigeria was formed as a federation of regions, reflecting its vast ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity. However, tensions quickly emerged due to regional rivalries, ethnic divisions, and disagreements over resource control and power sharing.

In 1966, a military coup overthrew the civilian government, leading to a period of political instability and further ethnic tensions. A second coup later that year resulted in General Yakubu Gowon assuming power. The most devastating outcome of this instability was the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970), also known as the Biafran War, which erupted when the southeastern region, dominated by the Igbo ethnic group, attempted to secede as the Republic of Biafra. The war ended with Biafra’s surrender and the promise of national reconciliation, but it left deep scars on the nation’s unity.

Following the civil war, Nigeria experienced a series of military regimes, punctuated by brief civilian rule. In 1979, a return to democracy brought President Shehu Shagari to power under a new presidential system, similar to that of the United States.

However, economic mismanagement and allegations of corruption led to another military coup in 1983, ushering in a long period of authoritarian military rule under leaders like Muhammadu Buhari and later General Ibrahim Babangida. 

Efforts to transition back to civilian rule in the early 1990s were interrupted by the annulment of the 1993 presidential election, widely believed to have been won by Moshood Abiola.The annulment sparked national and international outrage, leading to the rise of civil unrest and pro-democracy movements. 

In 1998, following the sudden death of military ruler General Sani Abacha, General Abdulsalami Abubakar assumed power and initiated a transition to civilian rule. This culminated in the 1999 democratic elections, which brought former military leader Olusegun Obasanjo to power as a civilian president. 

His election marked the beginning of Nigeria’s Fourth Republic and the longest period of uninterrupted civilian governance in the country’s history. He oversaw the country’s first democratic handover of power and initiated administrative reforms that accelerated economic growth.

Since 1999, Nigeria has held several general elections and witnessed peaceful transfers of power, a significant achievement for a country with a complex political past. 

Obasanjo was succeeded by Umaru Musa Yar’Adua in 2007, and after Yar’Adua’s death in 2010, his vice president, Goodluck Jonathan, assumed the presidency.

Goodluck Jonathan won the 2011 election but was defeated in 2015 by Muhammadu Buhari, marking the first time an incumbent president lost to an opposition candidate in Nigeria’s democratic history.

Buhari served two terms, from 2015 to 2023, focusing on anti-corruption efforts, economic reforms, and battling insecurity, particularly from Boko Haram and other insurgent groups.                                                                                                                             

In 2023, was elected president, continuing the democratic tradition of civilian rule. His administration faces pressing challenges including insecurity, economic instability, and demands for political reform and improved governance.